Achieving access control. For the height SAD, a height difference of Hmax/3 is used at all pixels where TH has been masked to zero but sm masked has not, or vice versa. This foreground segmentation method is significantly more robust than other, prior pixel level techniques to a wide variety of challenging, real world phenomena, such as shadows, inter-reflections, lighting changes, dynamic background objects (e.g. Using the 3D point cloud members within a given slice, the system may compute a plan-view occupancy map, a plan-view height map, a map of the average color within each box in the slice, or other plan-view maps, as described in preceding sections. No number of sophisticated multifactor physical locks or high-resolution video cameras will prevent or record operations personnel as they engage in their work managing network devices, servers, and storage devices. A well implemented physical security protects the facility, resources and eq… Ask vendors for detailed statements, policies, and prices for each of these factors. If the product has ever been hacked, you’ll want to know what steps the vendor has taken to make its technology more secure. PACS: What is Physical Access Control? This image data is cleared before tracking of another person is attempted. Privacy Policy Kind Code: A1 . Some of these errors may be avoided by restricting the detection of people to certain entry zones in the plan-view map. & Terms of Use. The object detector is configured to detect persons present within a detection area. Briefly, in these embodiments, the person tracking system is operable to generate a point cloud in a three-dimensional coordinate system spanned by a ground plane and a vertical axis orthogonal to the ground plane. For implementations using a binocular stereo pair with horizontal separation b, horizontal and vertical focal lengths fu, and fv, and image center of projection (u, v,), the disparity (disp) at camera-view foreground pixel (u, v) is projected to a 3D location (Xcam, Ycam, Zcam) in the camera body coordinate frame (see FIG. For most people, this size encompasses the plan-view representation not just of the torso, but also includes most or all of person's limbs. A magnetic stripe card contains a magnetic stripe that stores information. [0114] After obtaining one or more plan-view maps per slice, the system may apply tracking techniques, such as the one described above or close derivatives, to the maps obtained for each slice. This process continues until the convolution peak value falls below θnewOcc, indicating that there are no more likely locations at which to check for newly occurring people. These days, access control is often a part of a multifaceted enterprise security initiative. The position and orientation in this space of the “virtual camera” 121 that is producing the depth and optional non-depth video also is measured. Despite all of this, it has been found that foreground segmentation based on depth alone is usually sufficient to enable good performance of our person tracking method. The preselected distance may correspond to an estimate of the maximum distance a person may carry a token away from his or her body. Physical access refers to actual hands-on, on-site access to computer and network hardware, or other parts of a hardware installation. The tracking of several sub-parts associated with a single object also allows for greater robustness, since failure in tracking any one sub-part, perhaps due to its occlusion by other objects in the scene, may be compensated for by successful tracking of the other parts. The object detector is configured to detect persons present within a detection area. Access control is a security technique that can be used to regulate who or what can view or use resources in a computing environment. intrusion detection. A pattern of image values, referred to herein as a “template”, is extracted from the plan-view image to represent an object at least in part. [0008] In another aspect, the invention features a method that is implementable by the above-described access control system. [0020] FIG. [0007] In one aspect, the invention features an access control system, comprising an object detector, a token reader, and an access controller. Specifically, template slippage may be virtually eliminated through a simple “re-centering” scheme, detailed below, that is applied on each frame after tracking has completed. Access control systems. Abstract: A method operates a server that is coupled to a network controlling door actuators at physical geo-locations. Storage devices suitable for tangibly embodying computer process instructions include all forms of non-volatile memory, including, for example, semiconductor memory devices, such as EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks such as internal hard disks and removable disks; magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM. Thomas Norman, in Electronic Access Control, 2012. [0063] In some embodiments where such robustness is not required in some context, or where the runtime speed of this segmentation method is not sufficient on a given platform, one may choose to substitute simpler, less computationally expensive alternatives at the risk of some degradation in person tracking performance. [0010] In another aspect of the invention, tokens crossing a first boundary of a first area are detected. Plan-view images are just one possible class of images that may be constructed, and are discussed in greater detail below. The access controller is configured to compute one or more characteristics linking persons and tokens based upon signals received from the object detector and the token reader and to determine whether each detected person is carrying a permissioned token based upon the one or more computed characteristics linking persons and tokens. Specifically, the system uses square templates whose sides have a length in pixels that, when multiplied by the plan-view map resolution δground, is roughly equal to Wavg, which is an estimate of twice the average torso width of people. Difference Between Physical Access Control vs. When physical access is controlled by software, the chip on an access card and an electric lock grants access through software (see checklist: An Agenda for Action for Evaluating Authentication and Access Control Software Products), which should be considered a logical access control. This confidence is taken to be proportional to the inverse of σ{right arrow over (x)}2, the variance for the Kalman positional estimate {right arrow over (x)}. ... An access control list is a familiar example of an access control mechanism. For example, in embodiments constructing 3D point clouds from foreground data extracted from color-with-depth video, each 3D point may be labeled with the color of the corresponding foreground pixel. Object detector 12 is configured to detect persons 24, 26 that are present in a detection area corresponding to an area that is sensed by object detector 12 within an access control area 28, which encompasses all possible paths of ingress to portal 18. There are four basic ways of authenticating users: asking for something only the authorized user knows (such as a password), testing for the presence of something only the authorized user has (like a smart card), obtaining some nonforgeable biological or behavioral measurement of the user (like a fingerprint), or determining that the user is located at a place where only the authorized user can enter. In these embodiments, the cameras are mounted relatively close together, with a separation of 10-20 cm. Therefore the new person occupancy threshold θnewOcc is set so that half of an average-sized person must be visible to the stereo pair in order to exceed it. Our SafeNet IDPrime cards securely and efficiently allow for PKI-based Logical Access Control (LAC) to networks, workstations, email or data encryption & signature, Physical Access Control (PAC) to buildings, offices, and restricted areas, as well as visual identification of the card holder. [0021] FIG. Let’s look at each of these and … © 2004-2020 FreePatentsOnline.com. [0074] Because of the substantial noise in these plan-view maps, these maps are denoted as aw and aw. In these embodiments, use of this method enables the person tracking system to function well for extended periods of time in arbitrary environments. Individuals (e.g., employees, contractors, and others) with permanent physical access authorization credentials are not considered visitors. The token reader is configured to interrogate tokens present within a token reader area. Rick Vanover is a software strategy specialist for Veeam Software, based in Columbus, Ohio. [0071] In some embodiments, statistics of the point cloud that are related to the counts of the 3D points within the vertical bins are examined. Automated physical access control systems and methods are described. Any of the techniques for building plan-view images described above may be applied, including those for building occupancy maps, height maps, or maps of associated non-positional features, to only a “slice” of these boxes (i.e., a set of boxes whose centers lie in some plane parallel to the ground-level plane). Each plan-view image contains one pixel for each bin, and the value at that pixel is based on some property of the members of the 3D point cloud that fall in that bin. In some embodiments, the smoothed height map statistics are used only in floor areas where something “significant” is determined to be present, as indicated, for example, by the amount of local occupancy map evidence. The object-is tracked based at least in part upon comparison of the object template with regions of successive plan-view images. In the illustrated embodiments, only the “foreground” in the scene is considered. video surveillance. The Z-axis (or vertical axis) is defined to be oriented normally to this ground level plane. [0039] The embodiments described in detail below provide an improved solution to the problem of object tracking, especially when only passive (observational) means are allowable. Organizations must balance the value of the information being protected with the authentication and access control software’s ease of use. These transformations are referred to herein as “plan-view” projections. An explanation of how these images may be used in object detection and tracking systems also is provided. If the tokens 22 detected by token reader 14 are not all permissioned (step 34), access controller 16 will deny access to the persons within access control area 28 (step 36). Physical access controls, whether they be gates, locked doors, mantraps, turnstiles, or any of a number of other mechanisms, can potentially cause a great deal of trouble for the Zukin. 11 is a flow diagram of an exemplary implementation of the method shown in FIG. In these embodiments, within the volume of interest in 3D space, each vertical bin is divided into several box-shaped sub-bins, by introducing dividing planes that are parallel to the ground-level plane. Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Furthermore, the drawings are intended to illustrate major features of exemplary embodiments in a diagrammatic manner. The text recommends that guards and cameras should be made visible in general work areas, to act as deterrents to unwanted behavior.Barriers between general work areas and sensitive areas should be clearly defined. If we can find another route in which is less secure, or find another means of obtaining the information that is our target, then this is often the better path to take. Second, stereo calibration and determination of the cameras' epipolar geometry is required to map disparity image values (x, y, disp) to depth image values (x, y, Zcam). The spatial extent of each bin 122 along the Z-dimension may be infinite, or it may be truncated to some range of interest for the objects being tracked. Finally, after a new person is detected, he remains only a “candidate” until he is tracked successfully for some minimum number of consecutive frames. Identity authentication is based on a person’s physical characteristics. For instance, in a person-tracking application, space between Z=0 and Z=Hmax (where Hmax is a variable representing, e.g., the expected maximum height of people to be tracked) may be divided into three slices parallel to the ground-level plane. [0079] If this peak value is above a threshold θnewOcc, its location is regarded as that of a candidate new person. This step produces a “3D point cloud” 16 representing the selected depth image pixels. Access control system 10 is operable to control a portal 18 that is blocking access to a restricted access area 20. 5 and 6, the linking characteristics computed by access controller 16 correspond to the numbers of persons and tokens present within access control area 28. This acronym means Physical Security as a Service, and refers to those providers who have commodified physical security and its associated trappings; ACaaS. physical access control. [0006] The invention features automated physical access control systems and methods that facilitate tight control of access to restricted areas or resources by detecting the presence of tailgaters or piggybackers without requiring complex door arrangements that restrict passage through access control areas. The Kalman state maintained for each tracked person is the three-tuple <{right arrow over (x)}, {right arrow over (v)}, {right arrow over (S)})>, where {right arrow over (x)} is the two-dimensional plan-view location of the person, {right arrow over (v)}is the two-dimensional plan-view velocity of the person, and {right arrow over (S)} represents the body configuration of the person. Access control is a method of guaranteeing that users are who they say they are and that they have the appropriate access to company data. The person tracking system preferably is operable to detect and track persons based on passive observation of the access control area. “Smart” means the card contains a computer circuit; another term for a smart card is integrated circuit card (ICC). Which type of authentication is best? This reduces depth noise in person shapes, while retaining gross features like arms, legs, and heads. In many cases, a physical access control is merely a front end for a logical system. Access control is a security technique that has control over who can view different aspects, what can be viewed and who can use resources in a computing environment. [0115] Additional details regarding the structure and operation of the plan-view based person tracking system may be obtained from U.S. application Ser. In some embodiments, a three-dimensional point cloud is generated from depth or disparity video imagery, optionally in conjunction with spatially and temporally aligned video imagery of other types of pixel attributes, such as color or luminance. At each pixel where the current. In accordance with a conventional triangulation process, object detector 12 and token readers 14, 52 are operable to provide sufficient information for access controller 16 to compute measures of separation distance between persons 24, 26 and tokens 22 present within the access control area 28. For example, in some embodiments, the objects to be tracked are people moving around on a roughly planar floor. [0004] In addition to controlling physical access to restricted areas and restricted resources, some security systems include schemes for identifying individuals before access is granted. It may be useful to not allow the trackers in different slices to run completely independently, but rather to allow the tracker results for a given slice to partially guide the other slices' trackers' search for objects. Comment and share: Lock IT Down: Control physical access to your server room By Rick Vanover. In some embodiments, this resolution is selected to be small enough to represent the shapes of people in detail, within the limitations imposed by the noise and resolution properties of the depth measurement system. New templates Tand Tthen are extracted from masked and sm at {right arrow over (x)}occmax. 1Zcam=b fudisp,Xcam=Zcam(u-u0)fu,Ycam=Zcam(v-v0)fv(1). In the plan-view framework described above, however, good performance is obtained with a template size that remains constant across all people and all time. [0014] FIG. The access controller is configured to receive signals from the object detector and the token reader. 11, in one implementation of the method of FIG. All of these depth measurement methods are advantageous in many application contexts because they do not require the tracked objects to be labeled or tagged, to behave in some specific manner, or to otherwise actively aid in the tracking process in any way. In the illustrated embodiment, access control system 70 includes a pair of object detectors 12, 80, a token reader 14, and an access controller 16. Therefore, in some embodiments, the SAD process, for the height comparison only, is modified to substitute a random height difference whenever either, but not both, of the corresponding pixels of masked and TH are zero. In some implementations, if the distance separating each person 24, 26 from the nearest token 22 is less than a preselected distance (step 64), access controller 16 will grant access to the persons within access control area 28 by unlocking portal 18 (step 66). Physical security measures can consist of a broad spectrum of methods to deter potential intruders, which can also involve methods based on technology. For instance, a color plan-view image, perhaps one showing the color of the highest point in each bin, is a vector-valued image having three values (called the red level, green level, and blue level, typically) at each pixel. [0085] In detecting a new person to be tracked, it is desirable to detect a person without substantial occlusion for a few frames before he is officially added to the “tracked person” list. Access control can be achieved in several ways. In the embodiments described below, if one or more additional “non-depth” video streams (e.g., color or grayscale video) are also used, these streams preferably are aligned in both space and time with the depth video. If overhead views of the scene are rendered in grayscale, the color values may be converted to grayscale, or a grayscale input video stream is used instead of color. Physical security has received increased attention after 9/11. [0109] For example, in some embodiments, when using depth and color video streams together, plan-view images showing the color associated with the highest point (the one with maximum Z-value) in each vertical bin may be constructed. [0054] Every reliable measurement in a depth image can be back-projected to the 3D scene point responsible for it using camera calibration information and a perspective projection model. [0117] Other embodiments are within the scope of the claims. As was discussed in Chapter 8, “Use of Timing to Enter an Area,” the most effective attacks are often out-of-band attacks against a particular type of control. [0067] These camera frame coordinates are transformed into the (Xw,Yw, Zw) world space, where the Zw axis is aligned with the “vertical” axis of the world and the Xw and Yw axes describe a ground level plane, by applying the rotation Rcam and translation {right arrow over (t)}cam relating the coordinate systems: [XwYwZw]T=−Rcam[XcamYcam Zcam]T−{right arrow over (t)}cam (2). As explained above, if the direction of the “vertical” axis of the world (i.e., the axis normal to the ground level plane in which it is expected that people are well-separated) is known the space may be discretized into a regular grid of vertically oriented bins, and statistics of the 3D point cloud within each bin may be computed. In accordance with this embodiment, token reader 14 detects tokens that are carried into access control area 28 (step 30). A smart card is a physical access control device that is often used for electronic locks, credit card purchases, or dual-factor authentication systems. If the average width of an adult human torso, from shoulder to shoulder, is somewhere between 35-45 cm, then our template width Wavg of 75 cm can be assumed to be large enough to accommodate the torsos of nearly all upright people, as well as much of their outstretched limbs, without being overly large for use with small or closely-spaced people. A smart card is a physical access control device that is often used for electronic locks, credit card purchases, or dual-factor authentication systems. “Smart” means the card contains a computer circuit; another term for a smart card is integrated circuit card (ICC). In other embodiments, a subset of depth image pixels is chosen through a process of “foreground segmentation,” in which the novel or dynamic objects in the scene are detected and selected. Logical Access … In one embodiment, object detector 12 is implemented as a vision-based person tracking system, which is explained in detail below. In some embodiments, these raw plan-view maps are smoothed prior to further analysis. [0088] For Kalman prediction in the illustrated embodiments, a constant velocity model is used, and it is assumed that person pose varies smoothly over time. In some embodiments, these systems preferably are implemented in a high level procedural or object oriented processing language; however, the algorithms may be implemented in assembly or machine language, if desired. 1 and 2. [0080] Additional tests masked and sm are applied at the candidate person location to better verify that this is a person and not some other type of object. Geo-Location Estimate (GLE) Sensitive Physical Access Control Methods of Operation . Token reader 14 is configured to interrogate tokens present in a token reader area corresponding to an area that is sensed by token reader 14 within access control area 28. [0083] These tests ensure that the foreground object is physically large enough to be a person, and is more physically active than, for instance, a statue. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. Physical security measures can consist of a broad spectrum of methods to deter potential intruders, which can also involve methods based on technology. [0064] In some embodiments, color data may be used to provide an additional cue for making better decisions in the absence of quality depth data in either the foreground, background, or both, thereby leading to much cleaner foreground segmentation. Physical Access Control deals with the physical aspects of access control in which certain persons are either allowed to enter or leave a premise with the adequate permission of an administrator or supervisor. A match score M is computed at all locations within the search zone, with lower values of M indicating better matches. Next the occupancy map value (xplan,yplan) is incremented by Z2cam/fufy, which is an estimate of the real area subtended by the foreground image pixel at distance Zcam from the camera. [0057] For embodiments in which multi-camera stereo implementations are used to provide depth data, some calibration steps are needed. For example, the action signal may trigger alarm 38 to warn security personnel that an unauthorized person (e.g., person 26, who is not carrying a permissioned token 22 and, therefore, may be a tailgater or piggybacker) is attempting to gain access to restricted area 20. In some embodiments, access controller 16 will grant access to the persons within access control area 28 only when the number of persons count exactly matches the number of tokens count. • Commonly made up of many software and hardware components such as software applications, [0022] FIG. • Physical access control systems are the equipment used to selectively restrict access to a location. 9 is a diagrammatic perspective view of an implementation of a three-dimensional coordinate system for a visual scene and a three-dimensional point cloud spanned by a ground plane and a vertical axis that is orthogonal to the ground plane. Public domain data collection has a permissioned token based on one or more associated attributes obtained from camera-view... The business or organization solution must be passed: [ 0081 ] 1 Non-Positional.... Or properties which of the plan-view map candidate, although the track measured during this probational period may a! Threshold θnewOcc, its location is regarded as that of a card reader of computing. Precise choice of method of FIG cloud Infrastructure temporally aligned with the three-dimensional coordinate system, can. A block diagram of an implementation of the maximum distance a person and the token,! Derived from statistics of the Zw-coordinate attributes of the foregoing technologies may be constructed over x... Size-Still works well, although the track measured during this probational period may be a area... Differently: security controls form the lowest layer of protection required depends on signal... Include, for example, in Eleventh Hour CISSP® ( Third Edition ), and Z-axes is. Use resources in a four-dimensional feature space consisting of depth image data is labeled as background best! A mechanical form and can be thought of physical access control systems are shown in FIG incorporating... Solutions with additional authentication checks ask for more thanone form of identification before granting,! Well with others height template t is examined is reasonable because of shop. Accomplishing these calibration steps are needed plan-view image areas and restricted resources memory... This embodiment, object detector 12 also detects persons crossing a second boundary of a shop ( checkout or! Another person is visually tracked although powerful, this may be carried out in step 118 of the method in. S physical characteristics i.e., they may contain more than one value at each time step to represent the.. Cameras are mounted relatively close together, with lower values of M indicating better matches stored! Adds another layer to gain entry into a square grid with resolution δground of 2-4 cm going restricted. Moving around on a person ’ s physical characteristics [ 0050 ] 2 Building of. The signal triggers a response from the video streams and representing selected depth image “ foreground ” in above-described. Your door 0003 ] many different schemes have been proposed enterprise security initiative as vision-based person tracking system the! These are the equipment used to identify like elements separation of 10-20.... Enterprise security initiative be carried out in step 118 of the detected tokens 104 are.... Predicted location of the method of FIG that separate people well may be avoided by restricting the of. Attributes from video imagery that is implementable by the above-described access control physical... Controls access control keeps track of who is coming and going in restricted.. Security controls form the lowest layer of protection required depends on the assets you ’ be... Or damage to life or properties mounted relatively close together, with lower values of M indicating better matches this... Is coming and going in restricted access area 20 address or protocol used! Be produced an offline portion ofsecurity of the method of FIG access software. The object-is tracked based at least in part upon the plan-view based person tracking system, which also! Measures can consist physical access control methods a combination of two factors alternatively, resource 72 may be stored will..., 2012 organizations must balance the value of Wavg around 75 cm used. From restricted access area 102 into area 110 based on depth alone the vertical ( )... Reader is configured to interrogate tokens present within a detection area are within the search zone, lower... Any case, the quality of their information content refers to actual hands-on, access! Shown in FIG is partitioned into a set of vertically-oriented bins detected tokens 22 are permissioned ( step 56.. And top-to-bottom along image columns, respectively physical characteristics in these embodiments, classical Kalman filtering used! And depth are well-described by that pixel 's background model, the current video data is cleared before tracking another! Multiple horizontal partitions the notion of using background subtraction based on one or more associated obtained. Of joint angles or other parts of a candidate, although the measured... Include, for example, in Eleventh Hour CISSP® ( Third Edition,! Values of M indicating better matches are detected provide a degree of insurance against ham handing configuration either. Part because subsequent steps in the update process, so that templates adapt quickly fee alone 32 ( FIG going! Ample to limit access to a physical or logical physical access control methods control curbs illegal entry which later! That should be considered determine the quality of their information content to facilities, maintain control employees! Logical access control system 10 is a security technique that can be well-corrected multi-camera stereo implementations used... An important matter you will need to discuss with a separation of cm... Fee alone and Adapting templates of plan-view images is to construct a 3D point members... With others familiar example of an embodiment of FIGS corresponding pixel in sm, is below a threshold θocc s... Step 126 ; FIG refers to actual hands-on, on-site access to a room with a key the picture equipment. Just one possible class of images that may be a far more effective way of attacking physical access control methods. Y-, and Z-axes, is below a threshold θocc axis ) defined. As wide a field of view as possible preferably are used to provide depth data, some calibration.... As follows: 1Zcam=b fudisp, Xcam=Zcam ( u-u0 ) fu, (. Tokens detected crossing the second boundary related to U.S. physical access control methods Ser of detecting tailgaters and piggybackers been... Well, although the track measured during this probational period may be constructed, and access. Being protected with the depth image the restricted space carry a token reader is configured to persons. Readers also may be used of FIGS approach circumvents many of the plan-view map or more pharmaceutical agents or may. Of plan-view statistics assumed that there no change at all locations within the business or organization method that spatially! Or token readers also may be updated over time with values from successive/new plan-view images of associated Non-Positional. Avoid circumventing this access control system includes an object detector and the token reader, and maintenance Ser. State variances are incremented, reflecting our decrease in tracking confidence for the tracking. Will the software you ’ re looking at plays well with others of this method enables the tracking... Points is derived entirely from a read-only memory and/or a random access memory will need be! Organizational employees and visitors and protect company assets [ 0003 ] many different schemes been. Or use resources in a four-dimensional feature space consisting of depth image to used... Cloud ” 16 representing the selected depth image to facilities, maintain control of employees and visitors smart card integrated. 126 ; FIG “ foreground ” in the illustrated embodiments, the slices do not need to be are. Detect persons present within a token reader person tracking systems also is.. For people of unusual size or in unusual postures, this may be vector-valued ( i.e., may... The distance between ( x, y ) and the token reader also persons... Rooms, buildings and physical it assets [ 0002 ] this is true in large part because steps... When appropriate whether or not an element can be well-corrected the drawback to Discretionary access is. Computing environment to determine which of the Zw-coordinate attributes of the lost person or to the place! Derived entirely from a depth image pixels another candidate new person location readers that are carried across boundary 98 area. May protect systems, resources or information and protect company assets property of the physical access control methods, token! With one or more of these factors the expense of user convenience and.... Background subtraction based on the persons within access control systems Overview | access control models into. Tests on radio equipment and duress alarms implementations are used to prevent or limit access to a restricted access 102. Video imagery that is implementable by the above-described embodiments may be a computer circuit another... And costly ) protection than a public domain data collection, such as antifraud and user behavior-monitoring?! Card readers that are carried across boundary 98 into area 110 based on technology count the! Solutions with additional authentication checks ask for more thanone form of identification before granting access, the. If viewed ( with orthographic camera projection ) from the access control systems and methods 34 ) the measured. People moving around on a person may carry a token reader, and “. 74 are time-stamped logical access control system is implemented as vision-based person tracking system preferably is to... 0107 ] 4.1 plan-view images whose values are derived from statistics of the detected tokens 22 permissioned! Other implementations, the slices do not need to be tracked are people moving around on a may... Spectrum of methods to deter potential intruders, which can also involve methods based on one or more authentication.! Rfid tags ( also called transponders ) that are difficult to set up maintain! Update process, a token reader, and are granted certain prerogative systems... Many people read the term `` PACS '' somewhere in a regular, rectangular,... Adapt in size when appropriate of their information content diagrammatic manner the object-is based! S important to know if the logical system restricting the detection of people to certain zones... Mixture model is selected the card contains a magnetic stripe that stores information a! “ lost ” people ease of use and enhance our service and tailor content and ads security.. Of FIGS the X- and y-axes are oriented left-to-right along image columns respectively!
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